Today, discourse surrounding art and culture fundamentally engages with the comprehension of global changes, which requires a shift of perspectives. We as practitioners in the fields of art history and cultural studies must uncover diverse modes of thinking and epistemological perspectives to scrutinize the developmental trajectory of history and future directions of contemporary art and culture. Hence, the focus of my research is how to discuss art history and artworks taking into consideration both the emergence and development of artistic phenomena and the changes in epistemological perspectives across different periods; and at the same time, to examine the value of contemporary art and the direction of its future development from this perspective.
For instance, when we look at ancient Chinese art, a prevalent viewpoint is to construe these artifacts as the spiritual essence of Confucianism, Daoism, and Zen Buddhism, or delve into the materialization process of aesthetics from the perspective of brush and ink techniques. These two viewpoints, however, fundamentally originate from a dualism of spirituality and materiality, significantly influenced by Western dualistic paradigms since the 20th century. In fact, Chinese art and culture embody a strong non-dualistic tendency characterized by neutralizing and intermediary factors. For example, in the early civilizations that revolved around the origin of written language, characters, calligraphy, and images are intermediary factors. They are both medium and identity, as well as the profound spirituality of "the utmost of literature," which is distinctively Chinese. I have long been focusing on the discovery of cultural constituents and cognitive modalities with multifaceted interactions, reciprocal coexistence, and mutual representations that are able to break the dualism of spirituality and materiality. This thematic undercurrent permeates my oeuvre, including seminal works such as the synthetic theory of Yi Pai, Theory of Western Art History, Contemporary Chinese Art History, as well as numerous articles and art reviews, all orchestrated to delineate a coherent epistemological standpoint and methodological approach.
Bingyi's selection of "Eye of Chaos" as the title for her exhibition demonstrates a keen thematic alignment. Firstly, the placement of the artwork within the East Asian Gallery of the Philadelphia Museum of Art, amidst ancient architectural marvels and ceramics, creates a cohesive and visually harmonious environment. Secondly, the overall effect and fundamental concept are exceptionally well-delivered, seamlessly blending the ancient with the contemporary, at the same time enabling a cross-referencing process between the two epochs. Though ink, as a medium, is traditional, it now has a distinctly contemporary perspective, serving as a continuum and development of the past, thereby enabling a dynamic interplay between the past and the present. Thirdly, in terms of the artwork itself, from the Yi Pai theory's perspective, or more specifically the maximalism perspective, it fits well into such a framework.
In terms of scale, it evokes the majestic style of Northern Song landscape paintings. Evidently, we find in Bingyi's works the overall sense of grandeur and visual impact characteristic of Northern Song paintings. However, disparities arise in the specific ways through which this grand sense of wholeness is articulated and how to guide the viewer to perceive the overall composition. These nuanced distinctions aptly reflect Bingyi's relentless pursuit of a contemporary perspective.
What is this contemporary perspective then? Rather than defining it conceptually, a more illuminating approach is to reconstruct the creative process itself. Consider, for instance, Fan Kuan's iconic masterpiece Travelers Among Mountains and Streams, the overall composition is harmonious, with the main peak in the center surrounded by side mountains, seamlessly meld with the foreground, engendering a unified pictorial narrative. The painting is full of intricate details and meticulous brushwork, yet, they do not hinder the cohesive unity between the whole and the parts. We cannot imagine how many textured strokes and brushwork the artist applied, the process is unreconstructible, only to be perceived or experienced. Yet, these perceptions and experience are subdued by the holistic coherence of the overall composition. Whether viewed in close proximity or from a distance, this enduring relationship persists-an eternal continuum that envelops the process within the sublime majesty of the landscape.
Bingyi's artworks also exude a sense of grandeur, yet her approach and creative process differ in several respects from traditional monumental landscape paintings. Notably, she focuses on providing a more nuanced presentation of the creative process to her audience by enlarging certain parts of the entire composition in great detail. Viewers are drawn to the intricacies of these details, textured strokes, and ink washes. We are able to experience how she channels her feelings into the process of artistic creation through her techniques. Thus, details are important, yet it leads to another important relationship-how the part unfolds itself or gradually blends into the overall composition. Unlike traditional compositions featuring prominent main and side mountains complemented by a foreground-a visually intuitive sense of unity-the visual unity in Bingyi's paintings does not rely on composition only, rather, it unfolds gradually through guiding the viewer from one detailed part to another within the painting. This engenders a perception that each part seamlessly contributes to the entirety of the composition. Ultimately, the viewer's viewing experience culminates in a holistic perception devoid of a reliance on pictorial compositions. Rather, it traces the imprints left by the artist's mental images on the painting, and this repetetive trajectory forms a characteristic feature of what I call the "maximalism".
Maximalism eschews the practice of a one-off infusion of emotion and connotation into brushwork, without the impetus of "a gifted brush generates flowers" driven by an impulsive burst of personality and passion. Instead, it remains steadfast in the ongoing process of repeated "narrative". This perspective rejects the obsession with brushwork or the idea of a "permanent presence of individuality within brushwork"-an outlook characteristically contemporary. This contemporary perspective is no longer obsessed with an overarching sense of compositional unity, rather, it must capture the wholeness inherent in the artist's mind throughout the painting process. Whether for the artist or the viewer, it represents a "holistic perception" formed through the process of experiencing and understanding.
This concept of "holistic perception" differs from the notion of "meaning verification" or "injecting meaning" into an artwork all at once. It seemingly embodies a quality of dispersal and overflow of meaning akin to the popular concept of deconstruction in contemporary discourse. However, it does not align precisely with deconstruction but rather represents a form of construction that requires delving into the pictorial surface and inject or conceal meanings into its deeper layers. Some may interpret this holistic sensation through the concept of "abstraction", yet I argue that Bingyi's paintings are beyond abstraction. From the perspective of Yi Pai, these works with characteristics of maximalism should be termed "mutual representation," that is, objects and self-representation, concreteness and abstraction, mind and state, etc., which all serve as pairs of mutual referents.
Underpinning this discussion is a broader issue-the notion of "perception" introduced earlier. From an epistemological perspective, a painting's representation of the world as perceived by humans typically stems from two main starting points: one seeks the verification of the "truth," while the other involves the perception of the "truth."
I argue that contemporary art in post-pandemic era will witness a resurgence of the epistemology of "perception". Why so? For the past three hundred years since the 18th century, we have been deeply influenced by European Enlightenment epistemology, including humanism, historicism, and speculative metaphysics-all aimed at seeking meaning in the world and in human existence. The subjectivity theory of Enlightenment speculative philosophy has had a profound and enduring impact, not only in the Western world but also in China. Therefore, whenever we encounter a problem or facing an artwork or a novel, all these "texts" produced by humans are subject to scrutiny regarding their meaning.
In China, one or two centuries ago, "meaning verification" is almost an unreasonable inquiry. Consider this: if you were to ask Dong Qichang the significance of Ni Zan's landscape paintings, Dong Qichang would never answer such a question. Because first, it cannot be considered a question, and second, it has no answer. Verifying the meaning of an artwork is not a preoccupation among ancient Chinese intellectuals. Hence, Western art historians do not consider Dong Qichang an art historian or critic but rather a mere connoisseur. This highlights a fundamental discrepancy between the two artistic discourses. Ancient artists like Dong strive to recapture the essence and process of painting and calligraphy by their precedent masters. Their focus lay in reproducing the process, the aesthetic pleasures, the richness of brushwork, and individual taste of painting. When they discuss personality, sentiment, taste, and even morality, these facets all emanate from distinct processes and contexts-what we referred to as "perception," a process of reconstructing perception through perception.
Yet, the notion of "perception" holds not only paramount importance in traditional Chinese culture but also served as the primary mode of epistemology in the West prior to the Enlightenment.
Think about ancient totems, divination rituals, and sacrificial ceremonies-are they not exemplars of perceptional civilization with the participation of human activity? Chinese bronze inscriptions, stone carvings on Mount Tai, and the subsequent literati philosophies like the exhaustion of rationality, the solitary reflections, and unfettered seclusion-all embody a "perceptional" thinking. The Book of Changes epitomizes the essence of this notion. Perception serves as an epistemological method that is mediated by the body (no distinction is made between the mind and the body, or the individual and ethnic groups) and relies on non-human or superhuman powers (divinities). "Divine revelation" transcends mere superstition, representing instead a harmonious resonance among divinities, humans, and nature. In the Western context, up until the advent of the Enlightenment, "perception" remained a primary avenue for apprehending the world. Subsequently, the Enlightenment era witnessed the compartmentalization of science, religion, and culture into distinct disciplines, which then lead to the emergence of epistemology predicated on the dichotomy between subjectivity and objectivity, seeking the ultimate meanings of things, life, and existence in a logical way and from a scientific perspective. The Enlightenment bestowed the right of "divine revelation" upon humans, turning it into a rationalized "human revelation"-humanism.
In my opinion, Western postmodern criticism of Enlightenment humanism actually stems from a profound disillusionment and skepticism concerning human subjectivity. However, various contemporary theories, including artistic creation, still draw upon explicit anthropocentric perspectives, but shifting from universal humanism towards geographical and individualistic humanism. Consequently, we witness the rise of pragmatic political cultures centered around geopolitical interests. The myriad crises of recent years-the 9/11 attacks, financial crisis, the COVID-19 pandemic, the Russia-Ukraine war, and even conflicts of civilizations-can be traced back to the disruption of global relations caused by this obsession with "human subjectivity." Therefore, we need to rediscover the philosophy of perception and its cultural epistemology that reveres nature, the divine, and the Other.
Turning to Bingyi's artistic oeuvre, I feel that her creative methodology closely aligns with the contemporary viewpoint of "process perception." Her advocacy for "pure art," in my interpretation, represents her attempt to break away from the conventional rhetoric that has been regarded as the norm, or to depart from the mainstream discourse of "meaning verification" prevalent in contemporary cultural politics.
Bingyi's Eye of Chaos: Dharma poignantly reflects her apprehensions about contemporary culture, using ancient motifs of nirvana to reveal the crisis of humanity in contemporary society. Over the past half-century, contemporary art has witnessed an excessive integration of practical political concerns into artistic creation and art criticism. The fundamental reason behind this phenomenon, as I previously suggested, lies in the prevailing ethos of "meaning verification." This approach certainly carries merit, as it can advocate certain social values and moral standards through such verification if utilized positively. However, if used excessively, it will become pervasive, forming a situation where everyone just follow the herd. Thus, there is an imperative to break free from this cycle. In this light, Bingyi's work stands as a testament to contemporaneity.
The theory of Yi Pai pertains to the reflection on the epistemology of art. In the post-pandemic era, it represents a departure from old perspectives on global relations. Even if we cannot entirely break away from these perspectives, we must endeavor to find ways to transcend them. However, mere metaphysical impulses toward transcendence or obstinate adherence to one single direction are still inadequate. The best transcendence lies in achieving synthesis. What is synthesis? It means realizing that nothing exists in isolation, whether on a cosmic scale or zooming in on various elements in the art world. We must acknowledge that in this world, whether it is between civilizations, or between different cultures like Confucianism, Islam, or Christianity, their relationship should be co-exsisting, interactive and interdependence rather than conflicting. Even on the level of material production, a painting, for instance, requires physical materials, a certain amount of intentional investment, and something you feel-context. During the process of artistic creation, all these factors are interwoven; none can be singled out as the ultimate factor. Whether on the level of civilization, materiality or cultural production, we are all integrated into such a comprehensive relationship-heaven, earth, and humans in one, or humans, objects, and circumstances in one. The epistemology of perception emphasizes more on this oneness relationship and actively engages in the process of experiencing it. In the 21st century, only such an epistemology can rescue the world with increasing conflicts, as well as the art and culture that have been hijacked by pragmatic politics. Human nature is inherently transcendent, and as a mode of thinking inherent to human nature, art should likewise be transcendent.
Recognizing the principle of oneness is not enough; there must be a breakthrough. What is this breakthrough? It is essentially about anticipating and addressing a problem with concerted effort. This world is shaped by the entanglement and involvement of multiple factors. For instance, the art world, according to Zhang Yanyuan from the Tang Dynasty, involves the interaction between li or reason, shi or cognition, and xing or form. Within this interaction, there inevitably exists points of convergence, varying in size and constantly moving. It is not a static, fixed area but rather a interactive state characterized by constant intertwining, fusion, and separation-a process itself-during which certain deficiencies in discrepancy will occur. Therefore, the theory of Yi Pai argues that it is precisely because each of them (li, shi and xing) possesses such inherent deficiencies that they are able to interact with each other, since each part requires complementation from the others. Hence, the Yi Pai theory does not view "discrepancy" as the nature of all beings and the universe; rather, it is merely a superficial phenomenon-there are as many discrepancies as there are things in the world. The essence of the world and its myriad beings lies in "deficiency," without which the world and all its beings would not exist.
From this point of view, good art never pursues "perfection"; rather, it is precisely because it possesses this inherent deficiency that it is able to achieve perfection. This is evident in many aspects of ancient Chinese art and culture, such as the notion of "clumsiness rather than skillfulness", "dirty rather than pure", or "not to seek formal resemblance", etc., which all acknowlege the value of deficiency. As deficiency leads to interaction, when we recognize deficiency, we recognize and understand interaction; and within interaction arises many other denotations such as displacement Furthermore, is this displacement merely an ungraspable state? To answer this question, I propose a core mode of thinking and methodology in the Yi Pai theory, which I call the "being of non-being." In the process of interaction, the overlap of several components gives rise to new boundaries, which remain in constant motion. However, we have a relatively stable area of intersecting overlap after all. This area may seem inconsequential to the epistemology of "meaning verification" because it is uncertain, unable to identify what is "being." However, for Yi Pai, it is an essential cognitive element. It is not the absolute "being" as seen through the lens of "meaning verification" but rather a "non-being" within the process of perception. The Yi Pai theory believes that only by identifying this "non-being" can we approach the "being" during the process presented by "non-being". This is the principle of what I call the "being of non-being," which is not a definite meaning but rather a presentation of changing relationships-a core perspective of the Yi Pai theory.
Therefore, to answer what the "purity" of art is, we must first understand the complexity of the relationship between things, rather than simply assigning to them a clear black-and-white "identity". Indeed, good art and artistic interpretation sometimes deliberately render something as not something, realizing the fact that everything, including those expressed in art, exists in a complex relationship in the first place. Ancient people used the term "chaos" to explain it, in my view, perhaps to avoid an explicit verification. Hence, they advocated that "the meaning lies beyond the words" and "the words do not fully convey the meaning". Additionally, chaos serves another function: it allows us to avoid the direct one-to-one connection between things, as well as between linguistic expressions and the things being expressed, which is the symmetry of logic in meaning verification. Instead, we need to employ asymmetrical metaphors. Consider how the Book of Changes elucidates hexagrams-in the descriptions of all sixty-four hexagrams, natural objects and social phenomena such as mountains, water, clouds, and trees are used as metaphors to describe each hexagram, non of them contains an explicit explanation of their meanings. Therefore, we must adopt a different approach, avoiding the one-to-one correspondence that leads to dualism (the unity of opposites). I encapsulate these perspectives and principles with the concept of the "being of non-being." In short, the epistemological perspective of "being of non-being" is inherently immune to any preconceived notions of binary symmetry.
Thus, purity actually originates from complexity. A particular form of chaos embodies a particular form of complexity. Chaos does not provide direct guidance; rather, it requires you to discover a certain intersecting area or relationship within it. The Chinese idiom "only to be perceived, but not expressed in words" conveys such a notion. Chaos on the cosmic level encompasses everything-One produced Two; Two produced Three; Three produced All things-this is xuanxue, or Neo-Daoism. In the early 20th century, scholars translated xuanxue as metaphysics, which makes sense to a certain extent. However, this is to understand "xuanxue" from the perspective of "meaning verification," which overlooks the fact that the concept of "xuanxue" was not formulated for the philosophy of verification based on logical speculation, but primarily for meditation based on perception and experience. It is inseparable from the physical, tangible realm, as expressed in the famous quote from Guo Xi-"enjoying the beauty of mountain spring as if dwelling in nature without leaving the banquet at home." Essentially, Yi Pai aims to acknowledge chaos on a strategic level, while dissatisfying it on a tactical level. Although the concept of chaos in the past accurately captured the state of "being as non-being," we still need to employ it as a methodology of "being of non-being." It is not only beneficial for criticism but also crucial for artistic creation. If both of them are forms of perception, then criticism is considered the perception of perception. Understanding an artwork should be regarded as another means of comprehending the world.
Once you delve into the process of meaning verification and attempt to define chaos, or become obsessed with the visual effects of chaos during creation, you will lose the essence of it. Chaos is not a one-time manifestation or an effect seen immediately. It is rather something invisible yet palpable-you understand it in your mind but cannot explain it clearly. There is no need nor a possible way to seek verification for it.
(Translated by Tina Liu)
